ETILE Fabrice

Abstract Background Successful implementation and long-term maintenance of healthy supermarkets initiatives are crucial to achieving potential population health benefits. Understanding barriers and enablers of implementation of real-world trials will enhance wide-scale implementation. This process evaluation of a healthy supermarket intervention sought to describe (i) customer, retailer and stakeholder perspectives on the intervention. (ii) intervention implementation. and (iii) implementation barriers and enablers. Methods Eat Well @ IGA was a 12-month randomised controlled trial conducted in 11 Independent Grocers of Australia (IGA) chain supermarkets in regional Victoria, Australia (5 intervention and 6 wait-listed control stores). Intervention components included trolley and basket signage, local area and in-store promotion, and shelf tags highlighting the healthiest packaged foods. A sequential mixed-methods process evaluation was undertaken. Customer exit surveys investigated demographics, and intervention recall and perceptions. Logistic mixed-models estimated associations between customer responses and demographics, with store as random effect. Supermarket staff surveys investigated staff demographics, interactions with customers, and intervention component feedback. Semi-structured stakeholder interviews with local government, retail and academic partners explored intervention perceptions, and factors which enabled or inhibited implementation, maintenance and scalability. Interviews were inductively coded to identify key themes. Results Of 500 customers surveyed, 33%[95%CI:23,44] recalled the Eat Well @ IGA brand and 97%[95%CI:93,99] agreed that IGA should continue its efforts to encourage healthy eating. The 82 staff surveyed demonstrated very favourable intervention perceptions. Themes from 19 interviews included that business models favour sales of unhealthy foods, and that stakeholder collaboration was crucial to intervention design and implementation. Staff surveys and interviews highlighted the need to minimise staff time for project maintenance and to regularly refresh intervention materials to increase and maintain salience among customers. Conclusions This process evaluation found that interventions to promote healthy diets in supermarkets can be perceived as beneficial by retailers, customers, and government partners provided that barriers including staff time and intervention salience are addressed. Collaborative partnerships in intervention design and implementation, including retailers, governments, and academics, show potential for encouraging long-term sustainability of interventions. Trial registration ISRCTN, ISRCTN37395231 Registered 4 May 2017.

Aims To predict the effects of perfect adherence to the French alcohol consumption guidelines, a maximum of 10 standard alcoholic drinks per week with no more than two standard alcoholic drinks per day, during a 36-year period (2014–50). Design This simulation study is an adaption of the Sheffield Alcohol Policy Model. The dose–response relationship between alcohol consumption and alcohol-attributable cancer risks was defined by cancer site-specific risk functions, each modelled as a continuous risk. These estimates were used to compute the potential impact fraction (PIF) associated with alcohol consumption by cancer site. Setting The French general adult population during a 36-year period (2014–50). Participants For the baseline scenario, the current distribution of consumption levels, the counterfactual scenario and perfect adherence to the French alcohol consumption guidelines, we generated for each gender and age group 1000 randomly distributed alcohol consumption values from calibrated group-specific gamma distribution. Measurements The predicted number of new cancer cases among men and women in France between 2015 and 2050 that could have been prevented by following the French government's alcohol consumption guidelines. Findings The simulation predicted that perfect adherence to the French government's alcohol consumption guidelines would prevent, on average, an estimated 15 952 cancer cases per year after the PIF reached its full effect, which would have represented 4.5% of new cancer cases in 2015. The number of averted cancer cases over the study period were highest for oral cavity, oropharynx and hypopharynx cancer (respectively, 118 462, 95% CI = 113 803–123 022 and 11 167, 95% CI = 10 149–12 229] for men and women. liver and intrahepatic bile ducts cancer (123 447, 95% CI = 112 581–133 404 and 2825, 95% CI = 2208,4095). colorectal cancer (89 859, 95% CI = 84 651–95 355 and 12 847, 95% CI = 11 545–14 245). and female breast cancer (61 649, 95% CI = 56 330–67 452). Conclusion This simulation study of the French general population predicted that perfect adherence to the French government's alcohol consumption guidelines (no more than 10 standard alcoholic drinks per week and two per day) would prevent almost 16 000 cancer cases per year.

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The promotion of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is likely to depend on consumers’ purchase behaviors. While many consumers like the idea of social responsibility, the ethical consumption remains at a low level. This survey analyses two main barriers to ethical consumption: the willingness-to-pay for it, which relates to consumer social preferences. and the information asymmetry between companies and consumers. The economic literature shows that consumer social preferences are related to altruistic, self-image and social image concerns. Only consumers with strong social preferences and a low marginal utility of income (a high income) are likely to purchase CSR products. Moreover, purchase decisions crucially depend on the existence of labels, which truthfully identify the CSR products. Public policies may promote consumer social responsibility through education programs that enhance social preferences in children, price subsidies and careful label regulation.

Market heterogeneity may affect the distributional incidence of nutritional taxes if households sort by income across markets with different characteristics. We use scanner data to analyse the distributional incidence of the 2012 French soda tax on Exact Price Indices that measure consumer welfare from the price and availability of softdrinks at a local level. While the average pass-through was small-about 45 per cent-, tax incidence was significantly higher in low-income and less-competitive markets. Market heterogeneity ultimately has substantial distributional effects: it accounts for at least 33 per cent of the difference in welfare variation between low-and high-income consumers.

The educational expansion experienced by cohorts born after World War II in France is used to estimate the effect of schooling on the decisions to start and quit smoking. Educational expansion was driven by several reforms of the school system, and generated important changes in the distribution of schooling, especially for cohorts born between the 40s and the 70s. However, the share of those individuals who graduated with top university degrees and from the "Grandes Ecoles" remained stable throughout most of the period. We compare changes in smoking between these individuals (the control group) and the rest of the population (the treatment group), and between cohorts, to identify the effect of schooling on smoking. This difference-in-difference strategy provides evidence that, for women born between 1945 and 1965, education has had a negative effect on the decision to start smoking, and a negative impact on smoking duration. Results for men from the same birth cohorts are imprecise, but also suggest negative effects of education on smoking, albeit smaller than those observed for women.

The COVID-19 outbreak has generated significant uncertainty about the future, especially for young adults. Health and economic threats, as well as more diffuse concerns about the consequences of COVID-19, can trigger feelings of anxiety, leading individuals to adopt uncertainty-reducing behaviours. We tested whether anxiety was associated with an increase in willingness to be exposed to the risk of COVID-19 infection (WiRE) using an online survey administered to 3,110 French individuals aged between 18 and 35 years old during the lockdown period (April 2020). Overall, 56.5% of the sample declared a positive WiRE. Unemployment was associated with a higher WiRE (+8.

This article synthesizes the results of research conducted in economics on tobacco consumption regulation policies. It presents the conceptual framework in which economic analysis is situated, and shows that price and information policies, if they have had an effect in the past, are now reaching their limits. It is therefore necessary to invent new forms of regulation, which are not paternalistic but target the populations most at risk. Among these, the poorest people should be the focus of more attention, since they have not changed their behavior, or have done so only slightly, in response to public health policies.

This paper analyzes the relationship between education and smoking in France over the last century, using time series of prices and sales, several surveys of French educational qualifications, and retrospective individual data on smoking careers. A reduction in per capita consumption and a decline in the price elasticity of tobacco are observed in the second half of the 20th century. The increase in the average level of education could explain this trend because, on the one hand, education can improve the understanding of public health messages, which is a productive efficiency argument traditionally put forward in health economics, and, on the other hand, because the increase in the level of education is associated with an increase in the standard of living and therefore in the potential costs (in terms of welfare losses) of early death. The authors try to test the second explanation by assuming that individual well-being is relative, and by using the position of individuals in the distribution of diplomas specific to their cohort and their gender as a proxy for their relative social position. After controlling for price changes and unobserved heterogeneities, they find that this proxie is positively correlated with age of smoking initiation and negatively correlated with duration of smoking, whereas education has little effect on duration. Moreover, if the productive efficiency argument is valid, the most educated should have more price-elastic behavior after 1976, when information campaigns and tax increases were correlated. This prediction is invalidated for the elasticity of age of initiation, but is validated for the elasticity of duration of consumption. However, the latter result can also be interpreted in terms of opportunity costs: over the long term, differences in opportunity costs translate into higher consumption and therefore greater dependence on tobacco and, ultimately, less responsiveness to prices. Thus, despite the massive increase in education, the less educated remain less responsive to anti-smoking policies primarily because they have fewer incentives to quit. As a result, the reduction in aggregate sales is primarily due to reduced consumption among the affluent.

The authors use nine waves of the British Household Panel Survey to examine spousal interactions related to smoking. Spouses' smoking behaviors may be correlated for (at least) three reasons: matching in the marriage market of partners with identical health behaviors, strategic interactions in marriage about health investments that determine healthy time spent together (a public good), and transmission of information via observation of partner's smoking morbidity. Simple bivariate probits show that there is a positive correlation (all else being equal) between spouses' smoking status, consistent with explanations in terms of matching or strategic interactions. When fixed effects are controlled for, this correlation becomes insignificant: the authors interpret this result as evidence that smoking is not subject to strategic negotiation within couples. There would be more general matching of poor health risks in the marriage market.

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This article presents, in a non-technical way, some determinants of food behaviors highlighted by economics and marketing sciences. It is based on an exhaustive review of the literature, conducted within the framework of a collective expertise led by the INRA in which we actively participated. We point out a certain number of obstacles to the promotion of health-oriented eating behaviors. First, we recall that consumers' hedonic preferences are, in the short term, unstable, highly contextual and manipulable: brand, promotion and packaging can be used to modulate choices. Interest in health is another important preference parameter. It varies according to social class, gender and age. Certain segments of the population therefore give much more weight to pleasure than to foresight in their behaviors, for reasons that are sometimes embedded in their social affiliation (for example, social norms of corpulence). Beyond preferences, perceptions of risk and the way in which information is processed are biased by the cognitive limitations of consumers. Consumers often rely on simple heuristics, which in a world of information abundance has unexpected consequences. For example, consumers may be extremely sensitive to a detail (a nutritional claim, for example) that allows them to process the available information quickly, but very incompletely. Finally, time and budget constraints limit their ability to change. In the end, far from the image of a consumer who is sovereign and free to make his own choices, economics and marketing converge to portray a consumer who is largely subject to his environment, whether in his preferences or in his constraints.

The implementation of the voluntary nutritional progress charters marks a turning point in the French nutritional health policy developed since 2001 through the National Nutrition and Health Plan (PNNS). The implementation of the PNNS marked a revival of nutritional prevention actions which, with the onset of food abundance, had gradually lost interest in the general population to focus on risks concerning specific populations (elderly people, pregnant women, etc.). The PNNS was based on an expert report of the High Committee on Public Health of June 2000, which elevated nutritional health policy to the level of policies against smoking and alcoholism and justified the transformation of food into an epidemiological risk factor by joint changes in food supply (due to industrialization and globalization) and demand (food consumption patterns) (Hercberg, Tallec, 2000). While the Hercberg-Tallec report explicitly proposed the use of tools to regulate the market in order to "contribute to the achievement of the selected public health objectives", the first PNNS (2001-2005) focused its actions on consumers alone.

For most consumers, Corporate Social Responsibility is a credence attribute of products, which can be signaled either through a label certified by a third party, or through unsubstantiated claims used as part of a brand building strategy. These claims might be, in theory, self-regulated by reputation mechanisms and the awareness of NGOs and activists. We use an experimental posted offer market with sellers and buyers to compare the impact of these signaling strategies on market efficiency. Both third-party certification and the possibility of CSR-related brand building give rise to a separating equilibrium. Yet, only third-party certification clearly leads to efficiency gains, by increasing CSR investments. In markets where reputation matters little, unsubstantiated claims can generate a ‘halo’ effect in consumer choices, whereby they are nudged to pay more for the same level of CSR investments by firms.

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This thesis contributes to the understanding of human capital investment decisions of young adults in France. Young adults are in a decisive period in terms of their development and expression of preferences. Particular attention is paid to preferences, as well as to the resulting inequalities. The first chapter focuses on the roles of anticipatory treatment and multivariate preferences in the health insurance decision. Predictions from a theoretical model are tested on data collected in an experimental laboratory. Results show that higher health preference leads to more intensive treatment demand and that being correlation averse leads to more than full coverage. In the second chapter, using survey data, it is shown that differences in the use of care are primarily associated with need, followed by circumstances, reflecting inequalities of opportunity, and effort, reflecting fair inequalities. The third chapter focuses on the effect of students' psychological fragilities on their control beliefs. The instrumental variable strategy shows that more psychological frailties lead to increased control beliefs, which is consistent with the psychological literature that depressed and anxious individuals blame themselves more.

The COVID-19 outbreak has generated significant uncertainty about the future, especially for young adults. Health and economic threats, as well as more diffuse concerns about the consequences of COVID-19, can trigger feelings of anxiety, leading individuals to adopt uncertainty-reducing behaviours. We tested whether anxiety was associated with an increase in willingness to be exposed to the risk of COVID-19 infection (WiRE) using an online survey administered to 3,110 French individuals aged between 18 and 35 years old during the lockdown period (April 2020). Overall, 56.5% of the sample declared a positive WiRE. Unemployment was associated with a higher WiRE (+8.

Market heterogeneity may affect the distributional incidence of soft-drink taxes if households sortby income across markets with different characteristics. We use the Kantar Worldpanel homescandata to analyse the distributional incidence of the 2012 French soda tax on Exact Price Indices (EPIs)that measure consumer welfare from the price, availability and consumption of Sugar-SweetenedBeverages (SSBs) at a local market level. After correcting prices for consumer heterogeneity inpreferences, we find that the soda tax had a significant but small national average impact corres-ponding to a pass-through of approximately 40%. Producers and retailers set significantly higherpass-throughs in low-income, less-competitive and smaller markets and for cheaper but less popularbrands. Market heterogeneity ultimately has substantial distributional effects, as it accounts forapproximately 35% of the difference in welfare variation between low- and high-income consumers.

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What would be the effect of a "fat tax" on obesity? The article shows that the sign of the price-weight relationship is uncertain, as a price decrease has a positive direct effect on weight via an increase in energy intake, and a potentially negative indirect effect if the surplus income is allocated to goods and services that induce energy expenditure. The authors use data from the Sécodip panel to examine the relationships between the prices of 16 groups of foodstuffs and the different quantiles of the distribution of the body mass index of adults. They find positive correlations for prepared foods and snacks, and negative correlations for seafood and fruit. Thus, it is unlikely that the obesity epidemic will be stopped by implementing nutrition taxes.

This paper uses French food expenditures data to examine the effect of the prices of 23 food product categories on the distribution of Body Mass Index (BMI) in a sample of French adults. A dynamic choice model that uses standard assumptions from Physiology is developed. It is shown that the slope of the price-BMI relationship is affected by the individual's Physical Activity Level (PAL). When the latter is unobserved, identification of price effects at conditional quantiles of the BMI distribution requires quantile independence between PAL and the covariates, especially income. Then, using quantile regression results, unconditional BMI distributions can be simulated for various price policies. It is found that increasing the price of beverages, fats and sugars and sweets by 10%, and decreasing the price of fruits and vegetables by 10% would reduce the prevalence of overweight and obesity by 7 and 5 percentage points respectively.

This article presents in a non-technical way the state of the literature in marketing and economics on some general levers of action for nutritional health policies: prices, which can be modified by taxes and subsidies . information, delivered by general information campaigns and nutritional labelling . regulation of marketing practices of producers and distributors, in particular advertising and packaging. The literature shows that pricing policies are difficult to implement, inequitable, and produce only mediocre results, if not counter-productive. Information policies are fairly ineffective in the short term, because consumers have difficulty appropriating nutritional information and recommendations. Policies to control the consumer environment - advertising, choice architecture, packaging - seem more interesting, because they do not require cognitive or physiological effort from consumers. In the long term, the synergy of environmental regulation policies and information policies could produce multiplier effects by shifting consumption norms.

The taxation of unhealthy food products and the mandatory labeling of key nutrients may help to curve the growth of obesity and related metabolic risk factors. This paper is the first to propose ex ante evaluations of these policy options. To this end, we study the French market for fromages blanc and dessert yogurts, which is characterized by an exogenous variation in legal labeling requirements across products. This is used to identify separately the consumer preferences for fat-content labels and for fat in a structural demand model that is estimated from household scanner panel data. The estimated demand functions are then combined with a structural supply model to evaluate the impact of fat policies on several market outcomes. An ad-valorem tax of 10% on the producer price of full-fat products is shown to result in a 9% fall in fat purchases, whereas the mandatory labeling of fat content produces a 1.5% decrease only. This is explained by the producer price responses, which neutralize up to 96% of the impact of mandatory labeling on consumer demand.

Recentered Influence Function (RIF) regressions are used to decompose the changes in the distribution of Body Mass Index (BMI) in France between 1981 and 2003 into a composition effect produced by shifts in the sociodemographic composition of the population, and a structure effect from changes in the marginal effect of various factors on BMI. The impact of educational expansion, population ageing, the rise in divorce and immigration are separately identifed. The empirical results clearly illustrate the non-market benefits from education policies. In the absence of educational expansion, the median BMI would have increased by 1:28 points instead of 0:93 points for women, and 0:89 points instead of 0:74 points for men. The structure effects also reveal a 11% increase in education-related inequalities for women and a 8% rise for men. While ageing explains part of the rise in BMI, the age-BMI profile has flattened, showing that younger cohorts are heavier. There is also suggestive evidence that immigration has contributed to the rise in BMI, while the increasing proportion of singles is associated to a negative composition effect.

We use life satisfaction and Body Mass Index (BMI) information from three waves of the GSOEP to test for social interactions in BMI between spouses. Semi-parametric regressions show that partner’s BMI is, beyond a certain level, negatively correlated with own satisfaction. Own BMI is positively correlated with satisfaction in thin men, and negatively correlated with satisfaction after some threshold. Critically, this latter threshold increases with partner’s BMI when the individual is overweight. The negative well-being impact of own BMI is thus lower when the individual’s partner is heavier. This is consistent with social contagion effects in weight. However, this cross-partial effect is insignificant in instrumental variable regressions, suggesting that the uninstrumented relationship reflects selection on the marriage market or omitted variables, rather than contagion.

This paper investigates the relationships between the prices of 23 food categories and the prevalence of overweight and obesity in the French adult population, using scanner data covering all home food purchases of a representative panel of French households. Using quantile regressions, we show in particular that the price of alcohol, sweetened beverages, fats, sugars and sweets has a negative effect on the BMI of individuals at risk for overweight and obesity. We simulate the effect of a tax policy that would increase the price of these products by 10%. This would decrease the prevalence of obesity by 2.8 percentage points and that of overweight by 7 percentage points. However, there is considerable scientific uncertainty about the effect of such tax measures.

Concepts and results from the psychological research on identity may provide better understanding of the formation and dynamics of economic preferences. In this perspective, we propose a French translation of the Aspect of Identity IV(AIQ-IV ) psychometric questionnaire, which measures the orientation of subjective identity along personal, relational, public, and collective dimensions (Cheek et Briggs [1982], 2013)). The psychometric validation study checks the internal consistency, as well as the four-dimensional factorial structure, of the questionnaire in a representative sample of French young adults (N = 1,118). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of item responses reveal a four-factor structure that corresponds to the personal, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. Individual responses are found to be stable over time. In addition, while being correlated with similar psychological constructs (self-esteem, social self-esteem, self-consciousness), dimensions of the AIQ also predicts risk, time, and social preferences as measured by Likert scales and hypothetical choices.

The rise in obesity and other food-related chronic diseases has prompted public-health officials of local communities, national governments, and international institutions to pay attention to the regulation of food supply and consumer behavior. A wide range of policy interventions has been proposed and tested since the early 21st century in various countries. The most prominent are food taxation, health education, nutritional labeling, behavioral interventions at point-of-decision, advertising, and regulations of food quality and trade. While the standard neoclassical approach to consumer rationality provides limited arguments in favor of public regulations, the recent development of behavioral economics research extends the scope of regulation to many marketing practices of the food industry. In addition, behavioral economics provides arguments in favor of taxation, easy-to-use front-of-pack labels, and the use of nudges for altering consumer choices. A selective but careful review of the empirical literature on taxation, labeling, and nudges suggests that a policy mixing these tools may produce some health benefits. More specifically, soft-drink taxation, front-of-pack labeling policies, regulations of marketing practices, and eating nudges based on affect or behavior manipulations are often effective methods for reducing unhealthy eating. The economic research faces important challenges. First, the lack of a proper control group and exogenous sources of variations in policy variables make evaluation very difficult. Identification is challenging as well, with data covering short time periods over which markets are observed around slowly moving equilibrium. In addition, truly exogenous supply or demand shocks are rare events. Second, structural models of consumer choices cannot provide accurate assessment of the welfare benefits of public policies because they consider perfectly rational agents and often ignore the dynamic aspects of food decisions, especially consumer concerns over health. Being able to obtain better welfare evaluation of policies is a priority. Third, there is a lack of research on the food industry response to public policies. Some studies implement empirical industrial organization models to infer the industry strategic reactions from market data. A fruitful avenue is to extend this approach to analyze other key dimensions of industrial strategies, especially decisions regarding the nutritional quality of food. Finally, the implementation of nutritional policies yields systemic consequences that may be underestimated. They give rise to conflicts between public health and trade objectives and alter the business models of the food sector. This may greatly limit the external validity of ex-ante empirical approaches. Future works may benefit from household-, firm-, and product-level data collected in rapidly developing economies where food markets are characterized by rapid transitions, the supply is often more volatile, and exogenous shocks occur more frequently.

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Over the last decades the composition of the diet has changed: fat and sugar have partially replaced fiber in the diet. This nutritional transition represents a challenge in terms of public health: a diet high in fat and sugar is a major risk factor for diabetes and cardiovascular disease. While high-income countries were the first to be affected by this nutritional transition, middle-income countries are now affected, and the consequences in terms of public health are particularly severe in these countries. This thesis aims to better understand the causes and determinants of the nutritional transition in emerging countries. The first chapter focuses on the respective roles of the two main dimensions of globalization - the economic and the social - in diet change. We conclude that the social dimension of globalization (access to other cultures through the Internet and television) plays a more important role in these changes than the integration of emerging countries into the world economy. The second chapter builds on the results of the first, and analyzes one aspect of the social dimension of globalization: advertising and television programming. I use data on the case of Indonesia to estimate the effects of access to private television channels during childhood on diet in adulthood. The results suggest that product and lifestyle information broadcast on television leads to high consumption of "snacks" and sodas. The third chapter examines another determinant of food choice, short-term temperature changes, using data from Mexico. Estimates indicate that in high temperatures individuals increase their consumption of sodas, not water. This effect is related to changes in the consumption patterns of people who usually enjoy and buy sodas: in hot weather, they give in to their cravings more easily. This result validates the hypothesis of an impulsive behavioral response to temperature changes.

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Although over 40 jurisdictions have adopted a tax on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) for public health worldwide, it is still debated in many places. Policy processes can influence the prospect of an SSB tax, its design and its public health benefits. To get an insight into such processes, we undertook a case study of the soda tax enacted in France on the 1st of January 2012. Newspaper articles (2003–2013) and institutional documents (2007–2012) were identified using keywords and search engines. Qualitative data extraction and analyses were performed on a thematic and chronological basis, with guidance from Kingdon’s multiple streams theory (MST). Triangulation was enhanced by using complementary sources. This study shows that in August 2011, the French government surprisingly announced a €3.58 cent/L excise tax on SSBs, excluding juices with no added sugars and non-calorically sweetened beverages (NCSBs). As part of a large budgetary plan, the proposal aimed to reduce SSB consumption and raise revenue that was earmarked for health care. Several conditions contributed to opening a policy window: The announcement occurred in the context of severe budgetary deficits. soda tax scenarios had already been discussed at a high level. and the bill was supported by convinced political leaders. Subsequently, the tax successfully passed through the legislative process due to a series of unexpected events, but its public health rationale and design were weakened. The first event was the disorganised reaction by the food industry, despite their sharp opposition to the tax. The next event was the support of the soda tax that came from a majority of Deputies, provided that the revenues would serve another purpose: relieving wage costs in the farming sector. Finally, policy entrepreneurs favoured a compromise to make the tax politically acceptable and legally viable: The tax rate doubled, the scope was extended to NCSBs and revenues were split between health care and agriculture. This study sheds light on influence factors that could be taken into account by public health actors willing to influence soda tax policy processes.

In the last several decades obesity rates have risen significantly. In 2014, 10.8% and 14.9% of the world’s men and women, respectively, were obese as compared with 3.2% and 6.4% in 1975. The obesity “epidemic” has spread from high-income countries to emerging and developing ones in every region of the world. The rising obesity rates are essentially explained by a rise in total calorie intake associated with long-term global changes in the food supply. Food has become more abundant, available, and cheaper, but food affluence is associated with profound changes in the nutritional quality of supply. While calories have become richer in fats, sugar, and sodium, they are now lower in fiber. The nutrition transition from starvation to abundance and high-fat/sugar/salt food is thus accompanied by an epidemiological transition from infectious diseases and premature death to chronic diseases and longer lives. Food-related chronic diseases have important economic consequences in terms of human capital and medical care costs borne by public and private insurances and health systems. Technological innovations, trade globalization, and retailing expansion are associated with these substantial changes in the quantity and quality of food supply and diet in developed as well as in emerging and rapidly growing economies. Food variety has significantly increased due to innovations in the food production process. Raw food is broken down to obtain elementary substances that are subsequently assembled for producing final food products. This new approach, as well as improvements in cold chain and packaging, has contributed to a globalization of food chains and spurred an increase of trade in food products, which, jointly with foreign direct investments, alters the domestic food supply. Finally, technological advancements have also favored the emergence of large supermarkets and retailers, which have transformed the industrial organization of consumer markets. How do these developments affect population diets and diet-related diseases? Identifying the contribution of supply factors to long-term changes in diet and obesity is important because it can help to design innovative, effective, and evidence-based policies, such as regulations on trade, retailing, and quality or incentives for product reformulation. Yet this requires a correct evaluation of the importance and causal effects of supply-side factors on the obesity pandemic. Among others, the economic literature analyzes the effect of changes in food prices, food availability, trade, and marketing on the nutrition and epidemiological transitions. There is a lack of causal robust evidence on their long-term effects. The empirical identification of causal effects is de facto challenging because the dynamics of food supply is partly driven by demand-side factors and dynamics, like a growing female labor force, habit formation, and the social dynamics of preferences. There are several important limitations to the literature from the early 21st century. Existing studies cover mostly well-developed countries, use static economic and econometric specifications, and employ data that cover short periods of time unmarked by profound shifts in food supply. In contrast, empirical research on the long-term dynamics of consumer behavior is much more limited, and comparative studies across diverse cultural and institutional backgrounds are almost nonexistent. Studies on consumers in emerging countries could exploit the rapid time changes and large spatial heterogeneity, both to identify the causal impacts of shocks on supply factors and to document how local culture and institutions shape diet and nutritional outcomes.

Concepts and results from the psychological research on identity may providebetterunder- standing of the formation and dynamics of economic preferences.In this perspective,weproposea French translation ofthe Aspectof Identity (AIQ-IV) psychometric questionnaire, which measures the orientation of subjective identity along personal, relational, public, and collective dimensions (Cheek and Briggs 1982. Cheekand Briggs 2013). The psychometric validation study checks the internal consistency,as well as the four-dimensional factorial structure, of the questionnaire in a representative sample of French young adults (N=1,118). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of item responses reveala four-factor structure that corresponds to the personal, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. Individual responses are found to be stable overtime. In addition,whilebeingcorrelatedwithsimilar psychological constructs (Self-esteem, Social Self- esteem, Self-consciousness), dimensions of the AIQ also predicts risk, time, and social preferences as measured by Likert scales and hypothetica lchoices.

Market heterogeneity may affect the distributional incidence of soft-drink taxes if households sort by income across markets with different characteristics. We use the Kantar Worldpanel homescan data to analyse the distributional incidence of the 2012 French soda tax on Exact Price Indices (EPIs) that measure consumer welfare from the price, availability and consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages (SSBs) at a local market level. After correcting prices for consumer heterogeneity in preferences, we find that the soda tax had a significant but small national average impact corres- ponding to a pass-through of approximately 40%. Producers and retailers set significantly higher pass-throughs in low-income, less-competitive and smaller markets and for cheaper but less popular brands. Market heterogeneity ultimately has substantial distributional effects, as it accounts for approximately 35% of the difference in welfare variation between low- and high-income consumers.

The decline of cooking? Toulouse School of Economics Food Froup Seminar.

Improving food choices represents a major goal for the environment and public health. Consideration of future consequences (CFC) is a psychological construct that distinguishes individuals who adopt behaviors based on immediate needs and concerns from individuals who consider the future implications and consequences of their behavior. The objective of this study was to assess the association between CFC and indicators of dietary behaviors such as food choice motives, food intake, diet quality, and snacking. A sample of 50,955 participants from the NutriNet-Santé study completed the CFC-12 questionnaire. Food choice motives were assessed using a validated questionnaire regrouping 9 food choice motives. Food intake and diet quality (mPNNS-GS) were evaluated with of 24-h dietary records, and snacking frequency by using an ad-hoc question. Linear and logistic regressions adjusted for socio-demographic factors were performed. CFC was associated with all food choice motives (p<.0001), with the strongest associations observed for “environmental limitations” and “health” motives. CFC was also associated with intake of 13 out of the 16 food groups (p<.02). The strongest positive associations were found for fruits and vegetables and whole-grain products, while the strongest negative associations were found for alcohol and meat. Overall, CFC was positively associated with diet quality (p<.0001) and negatively associated with snacking frequency (p<.0001). Our data suggest that future-oriented individuals are concerned by their future individual health and also by more distal and altruistic environmental goals.

Background: Organic food intake has risen in many countries during the past decades. Even though motivations associated with such choice have been studied, psychological traits preceding these motivations have rarely been explored. Consideration of future consequences (CFC) represents the extent to which individuals consider future versus immediate consequences of their current behaviors. Consequently, a future oriented personality may be an important characteristic of organic food consumers. The objective was to analyze the association between CFC and organic food consumption in a large sample of the adult general population. Methods: In 2014, a sample of 27,634 participants from the NutriNet-Santé cohort study completed the CFC questionnaire and an Organic-Food Frequency questionnaire. For each food group (17 groups), non-organic food consumers were compared to organic food consumers across quartiles of the CFC using multiple logistic regressions. Moreover, adjusted means of proportions of organic food intakes out of total food intakes were compared between quartiles of the CFC. Analyses were adjusted for socio-demographic, lifestyle and dietary characteristics. Results: Participants with higher CFC were more likely to consume organic food (OR quartile 4 (Q4) vs. Q1 = 1.88, 95% CI: 1.62, 2.20). Overall, future oriented participants were more likely to consume 14 food groups. The strongest associations were observed for starchy refined foods (OR = 1.78, 95% CI: 1.63, 1.94), and fruits and vegetables (OR = 1.74, 95% CI: 1.58, 1.92). The contribution of organic food intake out of total food intake was 33% higher in the Q4 compared to Q1. More precisely, the contribution of organic food consumed was higher in the Q4 for 16 food groups. The highest relative differences between Q4 and Q1 were observed for starchy refined foods (22%) and non-alcoholic beverages (21%). Seafood was the only food group without a significant difference.

Improving food choices represents a major goal for the environment and public health. Consideration of future consequences (CFC) is a psychological construct that distinguishes individuals who adopt behaviors based on immediate needs and concerns from individuals who consider the future implications and consequences of their behavior. The objective of this study was to assess the association between CFC and indicators of dietary behaviors such as food choice motives, food intake, diet quality, and snacking. A sample of 50,955 participants from the NutriNet-Santé study completed the CFC-12 questionnaire. Food choice motives were assessed using a validated questionnaire regrouping 9 food choice motives. Food intake and diet quality (mPNNS-GS) were evaluated with of 24-h dietary records, and snacking frequency by using an ad-hoc question. Linear and logistic regressions adjusted on socio-demographic factors were performed. CFC was associated with all food choice motives (p<.0001), with the strongest associations observed for “environmental limitations” and “health” motives. CFC was also associated with intake of 13 out of the 16 food groups (p<.02). The strongest positive associations were found for fruits and vegetables and whole-grain products, while the strongest negative associations were found for alcohol and meat. Overall, CFC was positively associated with diet quality (p<.0001) and negatively associated with snacking frequency (p<.0001). Our data suggest that future-oriented individuals are concerned by their future individual health and also by more distal and altruistic environmental goals.

No summary available.

We here investigate the extent to which labour-market changes explain the decline in the time spent home cooking by married women in France between 1985 and 2010. Using time use data and Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions, we find that rising women’s employment and observed wages together account for about 60% of the fall in the time married women spent cooking. We then use a semi-parametric matching technique to construct an implicit wage rate, which better reflects the change in labour-market incentives that individuals face. The rise in women’s implicit wages explains no more than 20% of the decline in their cooking time, while the wage of their partner has no effect. Changing labour-market incentives are thus far from being the main driver of the decline in home-cooking. We also find evidence that home cooking continues to be structured by the gendered social norm of the “proper family meal”.

Policies to reduce health inequalities based on income redistribution or on reducing the costs of access to care for the poorest are common to many countries. These policies are based on the fact that there is a relationship between individual income and health status. This dissertation analyzes this relationship using the ≪ Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe ≫ which covers Europeans aged 50 years and older. We show that individual income is positively and concavely associated with health (absolute income hypothesis), but also that income inequalities within a country affect all individuals in that country (strong version of the income inequality hypothesis). The underlying mechanisms of this hypothesis show that to reduce health inequalities associated with income inequalities, governments must promote investments in human and social capital. Also, individuals are sensitive to the lifestyle followed by the majority of people. Subsequently, we implement a simultaneous analysis of health and income using a full information maximum likelihood estimator. The bidirectional causality of income and health is highlighted, as well as the presence of unobservable individual characteristics common to them. Finally, on a concrete example, that of anti-smoking policies, this thesis simultaneously analyzes tobacco consumption, individual income, and risk aversion. The results highlight the importance of individual preferences in the decision to smoke. Indeed, European smokers aged 50 and over are present-oriented, such that they do not consider the harmful effects of smoking on health, and are either risk averse due to anxiety, or risk-averse because they accept to alter their health.

The behavioural impact and acceptability of soft-drink taxes depend crucially on their incidence on consumer prices and welfare across socio-economic groups and markets. We use KantarWorldpanel homescan data to analyse the incidence of the 2012 French soda tax on Exact Price Indices (EPI) measuring consumer welfare from the availability and consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages (SSB) and Non-Calorically Sweetened Beverages (NCSB) at a local geographical level. The soda tax has had significant, similar but small impacts on the EPI of SSB and NCSB (+4%), corresponding to an aggregate pass-through of about 40%. Tax incidence was slightly higher for low-income and high-consuming households. Retailers set higher pass-throughs in low-income, less-competitive and smaller markets. They did not change their product assortments. The lack of horizontal competition in low-income markets had a sizeable effect on tax regressivity. Finally, the negative income gradient in tax incidence was offset by a positive gradient in expected health benefits.

Background Impulsivity is a psychological trait linked to health issues such as obesity. However, few studies have explored the relation between impulsivity, dietary intake, and eating disorders (EDs) in a general population. Objective The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess whether impulsivity was associated with energy intake, food-group consumption, snacking, and risk of EDs. Design In 2014, 51,368 adult participants from the NutriNet-Santé Study completed the 11th version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11), which assesses impulsivity. Food-group consumption and diet quality were evaluated by using ≥3 self-reported 24-h dietary records (n = 35,830), whereas snacking behavior was evaluated by an ad hoc question (n = 48,562). Risk of EDs was assessed with the Sick-Control-One-Fat-Food Questionnaire (SCOFF), and categories of ED (restrictive, bulimic, hyperphagic, and other types of EDs) were determined with the Expali algorithm (n = 48,824). Logistic and linear regressions were used to analyze the associations between impulsivity and energy intake, food-group consumption, diet quality, snacking, and risk of EDs, taking into account sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. Results Positive associations were found between impulsivity and consumption of alcoholic beverages and appetizers, whereas negative associations were found for fruit and vegetables, meat and poultry, processed meat, dairy products, milk-based desserts, and starchy foods. Impulsivity was positively associated with energy intake and negatively associated with diet quality. Impulsivity was also positively associated with snacking (OR: 3.32. 95% CI: 2.99, 3.68) and risk of EDs (OR: 3.02. 95% CI: 2.74, 3.33). The strongest associations were found for bulimic disorders (OR: 4.38. 95% CI: 3.66, 5.23) and hyperphagic disorders (OR: 2.91. 95% CI: 2.56, 3.31). Conclusion Impulsivity was associated with food intakes, snacking, and risk of EDs and could be taken into account in the promotion of healthy eating behavior. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03335644.

Since Oct 31, 2017, a front-of-pack labelling system named Nutri-Score (a synthetic information system based on colours and letters from green/A to red/E), allowing consumers to see and compare at a glance the nutritional value of pre-packaged foods is being implemented, on a voluntary basis, in France.1 Although some experts warned that the Nutri-Score might constitute an obstacle to EU trade,2 the measure appeared justified on public health grounds. The adoption of the Nutri-Score label was made after a lengthy 4 year process, during which intense lobbying by agro-industry opposed scientific evidence.

Background: Emotional eating (EmE) is characterized by an over consumption of food in response to negative emotions and is associated with an increased weight status. Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC) or a low level of impulsivity could influence the association between EmE and weight status. The objective was to analyze the moderating influence of CFC and impulsivity on the relationship between EmE and BMI. Methods: A total of 9974 men and 39,797 women from the NutriNet-Sante cohort study completed the revised 21-item Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire to assess their EmE, the CFC questionnaire (CFC-12) to assess their level of time perspective, and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) to assess their impulsivity. Weight and height were self-reported each year over a median follow-up of 5.3 years. The associations between EmE and repeated measures of BMI were estimated by multiple linear mixed-effects regression models stratified by gender, tertiles of the CFC, or tertiles of the BIS-11, taking into account sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. Results: Overall, EmE was positively associated with BMI. CFC and impulsivity did not moderate the effect of EmE on changes of BMI per year, but quantitatively moderated the effect of EmE on overall BMI. In women, the strength of the association between EmE and weight status increased with CFC level. Difference of BMI slopes between a low and a high level of CFC was - 0.43 kg/m(2) (95% CI: -0.55, - 0.30) (p < .0001). In addition, the strength of the association between emotional eating and weight status increased with impulsivity level. Difference of BMI slopes between a low and a high level of impulsivity was + 0.37 kg/m(2) (95% CI: 0.24, 0.51) (p < .0001). In men, only individuals with a low CFC presented a stronger association of EmE with BMI. Conclusions: Impulsivity and consideration of future consequences moderated the association between emotional eating and body weight status. This study emphasizes the importance of taking into account psychological traits in obesity prevention.

People now spend less time doing housework in general, and cooking in particular. So is cooking still a central feature of our daily eating practices? This article compares trends in household cooking durations in France and the USA in the period 1985–2010 using time-use surveys and practice theory. We ask how the association between cooking and eating at home has changed over time, and how it has contributed to the decline in the time spent on household cooking. Descriptive statistics show that US households spent 20 minutes less time per day cooking in 2010 than in 1985 (15 minutes less time per day in France). Linear regressions indicate that the association between cooking duration and the number of eating events at home has declined in the USA but not in France. The Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method points to this fact as the primary reason for the change in cooking time in the USA. in France, decreased cooking time is accounted for primarily by changes in population characteristics. French and American food practices have followed gradually diverging trajectories, with cooking less a feature of eating practices – even at home – in the USA, whereas the association between eating and preparing food at home remains stable in France.

The objective of this study is to examine the association between impulsivity and weight status in a large sample of the adult general population in France, and the influence of gender on this relationship. A total of 11,929 men and 39,114 women participating in the NutriNet-Santé cohort were selected in this cross-sectional analysis. The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) was used to assess impulsivity. Weight and height were self-reported. The association between impulsivity and BMI was estimated using logistic regressions adjusted for socio-demographic and lifestyle factors. Individuals with high impulsivity levels (BIS-11 total score >71) were more likely to be obese (Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.80, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.39, 2.33 in men. OR = 1.30, 95% CI: 1.15, 1.48 in women) compared to individuals in the average range of impulsivity. The strongest associations between impulsivity and obesity were observed in men, where highly impulsive participants were more likely to be class III obese (BMI > 40 kg/m²) (OR = 3.57, 95% CI: 1.86, 6.85). This large sample analysis supports the existence of a relationship between impulsivity and weight status and the importance of psychological factors in the prevention of obesity.

Using a panel dataset of 70 countries spanning 42 years (1970–2011), we investigate the distinct effects of social globalisation and trade openness on national trends in markers of diet quality (supplies of animal proteins, free fats and sugar, average body mass index, and diabetes prevalence). Our key methodological contribution is the application of a grouped fixed-effects estimator, which extends linear fixed-effects models. The grouped fixed-effects estimator partitions our sample into distinct groups of countries in order to control for time-varying unobserved heterogeneity that follows a group-specific pattern. We find that increasing social globalisation has a significant impact on the supplies of animal protein and sugar available for human consumption, as well as on mean body mass index. Specific components of social globalisation such as information flows (via television and the Internet) drive these results. Trade openness has no effect on dietary outcomes or health. These findings suggest that the social and cultural aspects of globalisation should receive greater attention in research on the nutrition transition.

This talk presents for a non-specialist audience the various issues surrounding the identification of the incidence of taxes on prices, in the context of behavioral taxation policies. It illustrates these issues by empirical results drawn from a study by Etilé, Lecocq & Boizot on the incidence of the French Soda tax on soft-drink prices.

Using a novel, dynamic finite mixture model applied to 12 years of nationally representative panel data, we explore individual heterogeneity in the total psychological response (our measure of resilience) to ten major adverse life events, including serious illness, redundancy and crime victimisation. Importantly, this model takes into account that individuals are not randomly selected into adverse events, that some events are anticipated in advance of their occurrence, and that the immediate psychological response and the speed of adaptation may differ across individuals. Additionally, we generate a ‘standardised event’ in order to document the distribution of general resilience in the population. We find considerable heterogeneity in the response to adverse events, with the total psychological loss of people with low resilience being several times larger than the average loss. We also find that resilience is strongly correlated with clinical measures of mental health, but only weakly correlated with cognitive and non-cognitive traits. Finally, we find that resilience in adulthood to some extent is predictable by childhood socioeconomic circumstances. the strongest predictor we identify is good childhood health.

Using a panel dataset of 70 countries spanning 42 years (1970-2011), we investigate the distinct effects of social globalisation and trade openness on national trends in markers of diet quality (supplies of animal proteins, free fats and sugar, average body mass index – BMI – and diabetes prevalence). Our key methodological contribution is the application of a grouped fixed-effects (GFE) estimator, which extends linear fixed-effects models. The GFE estimator partitions our sample into distinct groups of countries in order to control for time-varying unobserved heterogeneity that follows a group-specific pattern. We find that increasing social globalisation has a significant impact on the supplies of animal protein and sugar available for human consumption, as well as on mean BMI. Specific components of social globalisation such as information flows (via television and the Internet) drive these results. Trade openness has no effect on dietary outcomes or health. These findings suggest that the social and cultural aspects of globalisation should receive greater attention in research on the nutrition transition.

France is plagued by existential doubts about its social model. The promise of a society that guarantees everyone the right to happiness is slipping away, and the proposed remedies often seem worse than the evil they are intended to combat. This book presents a picture of a society that is questioning its future, and aims to propose a diagnosis and explore avenues of reform through the proposals of the most eminent researchers in economics, brought together under the leadership of Philippe Askenazy, Daniel Cohen and Claudia Senik. Analyzing the different facets of the social question, the book deals with the main themes that concern public opinion: gender inequality, the fight against discrimination in hiring, the fight against obesity, or the reflection on the link between liberalization and growth or the reform of the welfare state. This edition gathers the contributions of : Hippolyte d'Albis, Bruno Amable, Maya Bacache, Christian Baudelot, Luc Behaghel, Antoine Bozio, Hédi Brahimi, Eve Caroli, Damien Cartron, Martin Chevalier, Brigitte Dormont, Anthony Edo, Fabrice Etilé, Gabrielle Fack, Olivier Godechot, Jérôme Gautié, Michel Gollac, Julien Grenet, Angela Greulich, Malka Guillot, Nicolas Jacquemet, Ivan Ledezma, Mathieu Lefebvre, Dominique Meurs, Marion Monnet, Pierre Pestieau, Grégory Ponthière, Lucile Romanello, Gilles Saint-Paul and Claudia Senik. Économiques: the collection of Cepremap (Centre pour la recherche économique et ses applications), which brings the most advanced work in contemporary economic research to the general public.

Owing to the well-documented gender occupational career divide, linked to the persistent gender division of labor. key career characteristics are unevenly distributed in men and women: low-skilled first jobs, downward occupational trajectories, career interruptions are overrepresented in women. These characteristics are interrelated and usually associated with poor health. Therefore this gender career divide could contribute to women’s health disadvantage. In this study, we investigated whether these unequally distributed characteristics have an independent and long-lasting impact on both men’s and women’s health. We used the French population survey "Health and Occupational Trajectories" comprising 2 waves (2006 and 2010). We focused on the 45-64 year-old individuals who participated in both waves, being either in the labor force in 2006 (n = 3,368). The 2006 wave comprised retrospective information on occupations which enabled to characterization of the respondents' careers prior to 2006. First, multinomial logistic regressions assessed whether past career characteristics impacted the health trajectories which were measured by changes in self-perceived health (SPH) reported in 2006 and 2010. Second, nested logistic models assessed whether the impact of past career characteristics remain when most recent career characteristics are accounted for. All models were adjusted on current and past sociodemographic and health variables. We found that unskilled first jobs, interrupted or downward careers prior to 2006 impacted the 2006-2010 SPH trajectories in women. detrimental characteristics in men were downward and stationary trajectories, as well as a shift from self-employment to employment. Their impact was significant independently of the other past career characteristics and, in most cases, independently of the recent career changes observed between the two waves. The gender inequalities in first job opportunities and career discontinuity have long-term health consequences for women. These results encourage further investigation on how policies promoting equity in the labor force, could help to improve health and reduce women’s health disadvantage.

There are two primary treatment alternatives available to those with mild to moderate depression or anxiety: psychotherapy and medication. The medical literature and our analysis suggests that in many cases psychotherapy, or a combination of therapy and medication, is more curative than medication alone. However, few individuals choose to use psychotherapy. We develop and estimate a dynamic model in which individuals make sequential medical treatment and labor supply decisions while jointly managing mental health and human capital. The results shed light on the relative importance of several drawbacks to psychotherapy that explain patients’ reluctance to use it: (1) therapy has high time costs, which vary with an individual’s opportunity cost of time and flexibility of the work schedule. (2) therapy is less standardized than medication, which results in uncertainty about it’s productivity for a given individual. and (3) therapy is expensive. The estimated model is used to simulate the impacts of counterfactual policies that alter the costs associated with psychotherapy.

The analysis of the processes and results of the three previous National Nutrition and Health Programs (PNNS) has led to an understanding of the limitations of public health strategies based exclusively on individual determinants of dietary and physical activity behaviors. These strategies were mainly based on nutritional communication and purely incentive-based approaches. As the PNNS have only partially achieved their objectives and as social inequalities in health have worsened in the field of nutrition, the HCSP proposes, for 2017-2021, a public health nutrition policy based on measures targeting the general population with an intensity graduated according to the degree of disadvantage. It recommends, while continuing the previous strategies, to intervene on the social, economic and societal environment in order to facilitate healthy individual choices regarding diet and physical activity. It recommends using regulatory measures to reduce commercial marketing pressure, improve the food supply and physical and economic accessibility to foods of better nutritional quality. Finally, it recommends the development of specific and priority actions aimed at children and disadvantaged populations. This policy, which must take into account environmental and sustainable development concerns, requires a reorganization of its governance. The HCSP recommends setting up an interministerial steering committee with a clear public health objective and ensuring consistency between national and regional measures.

Public health advocates have proposed taxing Sugar-Sweetened Beverages (SSB) to curb the rise of obesity and diabetes. The effectiveness of this policy depends crucially on the incidence of a tax on consumer prices. We here use Kantar WorldPanel Homescan data to evaluate the incidence of the French soda tax, which is a unit excise tax of 0.0716 Euro/Liter on sugar-sweetened beverages implemented in January 2012. We construct a local nested-CES exact price index for aggregate SSB consumption, which accounts for product heterogeneity, variations in product availability and consumer taste across markets and time, and consumer ability to substitute between product varieties. We then find that the soda tax has had a small yet significant impact on the price of soft-drinks (around +0.8\%), corresponding to a pass-through of 51\%. We do not find evidence of heterogeneity in incidence across income groups or consumption levels. Overall, our findings support the assumption that SSB taxes effectively affect prices. But they also imply that ex-ante evaluation studies tend to be over-optimistic about the pass-through rates of behavioural taxes.

We here investigate the extent to which labour-market changes explain the decline in the time spent home cooking by married women in France between 1985 and 2010. Using time use data and Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions, we find that rising women’s employment and observed wages together account for about 60% of the fall in the time married women spent cooking. We then use a semi-parametric matching technique to construct an implicit wage rate, which better reflects the change in labour-market incentives that individuals face. The rise in women’s implicit wages explains only 20% of the decline in their cooking time, while the wage of their partner has no effect. Changing labour-market incentives are thus far from being the main driver of the decline in home-cooking. We also find evidence that home cooking continues to be structured by the gendered social norm of the ‘proper family meal’.

No summary available.

Introduction and purpose of the study: Improving food choices is a major environmental and public health issue. Studying personality traits associated with food choices and behaviors could provide insights to target prevention programs. Consideration of future consequences (CFC) is a personality trait that distinguishes individuals who engage in behaviors based on immediate concerns from individuals who consider the future consequences of their behavior. The purpose of this study was to analyze the association between CFC, food choice motivations, food consumption, overall diet quality, and snacking. Materials and Methods: A sample of 50955 participants from the NutriNet-Health cohort completed the SWC scale and a validated questionnaire measuring 9 food choice motivations (ethics and environment, environmental reasons, absence of contaminants, health, taste, price, local and traditional production, simplicity and innovation). Food consumption was obtained from at least 3 24-hour food records. Overall food quality was calculated from the mPNNS-GS score. Snacking, considered here as the frequency of food intake outside meals, was estimated with an ad hoc question. Linear and logistic regression models, stratified by sex and adjusted for sociodemographic factors, were used to analyze the associations between SWC and food choices and consumption. Results and Statistical Analysis: SWC was associated with food choice motivations (p<0.001), except for price and taste in men. Overall, the strongest positive associations were obtained for no contaminants, environmental reasons, and health . and the strongest negative associations were observed for simplicity and innovation. The strongest positive associations between CFC and food consumption were obtained for whole starchy foods (Relative difference Q4 vs Q1, men: 49%, women: 24%) and fruits and vegetables (men: 21%, women: 12%) . and the strongest negative associations were observed for alcohol (men: -25%, women: -25%) and meats (men: -15%, women: -12%). The mPNNS-GS score was higher in individuals with a high CFC (Q4) (men: 5%, women: 4%) compared to those with a low CFC (Q1). Finally, participants with a high SWC had a lower probability of snacking more than once per day compared to those with a low SWC: OR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.61-0.88 in men, OR = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.67-0.84 in women. Conclusion: High CFC was associated with environmental and health-related motivations and healthier food consumption. Promoting the importance and future consequences within dietary prevention programs could help improve food choices.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a credence attribute of products, which can be signaled either through a label certified by a third party, or via unsubstantiated claims used as part of a brand-building strategy. We use an experimental posted-offer market with sellers and buyers to compare the impact of these signaling strategies on market efficiency. Only third-party certification gives rise to a separating equilibrium and an increase in CSR investments. Unsubstantiated claims can generate a halo effect on consumers, whereby the latter are nudged into paying more for the same level of CSR investments by firms.

We use Kantar WorldPanel Homescan data to examine the incidence of the French soft-drink tax on consumer prices and welfare. The French soda tax is a unit excise tax of 0.076 Euro/Liter on sugar-sweetened beverages, which was implemented in January 2012. We first construct theoretically founded local Exact Price Indices, which account for product heterogeneity and availability in local markets. Our preliminary results suggest that the soda tax has had a very modest on the price of soft-drinks (around +0.6%), once shocks on input costs are accounted for. We do not find evidence of heterogeneity in incidence between across income groups or consumption levels. Finally, estimates of simple demand system with Fisher vs. Exact Price Indices suggest that price measurement is likely to have an important impact on ex ante evaluations of the effectiveness of behavioral taxes.

No summary available.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a credence attribute of products, which can be signaled either through a label certified by a third party, or via unsubstantiated claims used as part of a brand-building strategy. We use an experimental posted-offer market with sellers and buyers to compare the impact of these signaling strategies on market efficiency. Only third-party certification gives rise to a separating equilibrium and an increase in CSR investments. Unsubstantiated claims can generate a halo effect on consumers, whereby the latter are nudged into paying more for the same level of CSR investments by firms.

This thesis proposes to study the existence of obstacles to the development of the private LTC insurance market in France. We study three candidates in turn to explain this weak development: individual preferences, self-insurance behavior and agents' myopia. To do so, we use the "Preferences and Wealth vis-à-vis Risk and Time" and "Health and Social Protection" surveys, both of which have introduced specific LTC modules in the waves of surveys used in this thesis. Our econometric analyses confirm the role of these three determinants of LTC insurance demand as barriers. While the existence of a poor perception of LTC risk argues for state intervention in the relationship between the French and the planning of their loss of autonomy, the role of individual preferences and self-insurance behaviour highlighted in this thesis reveals an economically rational choice not to take out LTC insurance.

Using a panel dataset of 70 countries spanning 42 years (1970-2011), we investigate the distinct effects of economic and social globalisation on national trends in markers of diet quality (supplies of animal protein, free fat and sugar, prevalence of diabetes, average body mass index). Our key methodological contribution is the application of the grouped fixed-effects estimator, which extends linear fixed-effects models to include both time-invariant and time-varying unobserved heterogeneity, under the assumption that both the latter and the former follow group-specific patterns. We find that increasing social globalization has a significant impact on the supplies of animal protein and sugar available for human consumption. Specific components of social globalisation like personal contacts with foreigners and above all information flows drive these results. Economic globalisation has no effect on dietary outcomes, and has a negative impact on health. These findings suggest that the social and cultural aspects of globalisation should deserve greater attention in studies of the nutrition transition.

This presentation discusses Luke Wilson's paper on the identification of the causal impact of the Minimum Legal Drinking Age on the drinking behaviour of young adults in UK. This paper uses a Regression Discontinuity Design, whereby youths slightly younger than 18 are compared to those aged slightly older. The discussion emphasises various threats to the internal validity of this identification strategy.

We use counterfactual analysis techniques to evaluate the impact of a $2 minimum unit price (MUP) on the distribution of Australian (Victorian) household off-trade alcohol purchases. Our estimates suggest that a $2 MUP significantly reduces the purchases of at-risk households by up to −0.92 [90% CI: −1.55, −0.28] standard drinks at the highest quantiles and has substantially less effect on households purchasing at light and moderate levels. A $2 MUP may reduce the proportions of male and female shoppers purchasing at the public health threshold of more than two standard drinks per household member per day by −3.03 [90% CI: −4.83, −1.

We use counterfactual analysis techniques to evaluate the impact of a $2 minimum unit price (MUP) on the distribution of Australian (Victorian) household off-trade alcohol purchases. Our estimates suggest that a $2 MUP significantly reduces the purchases of at-risk households by up to -0.92 [90% CI: -1.55, -0.28] standard drinks at the highest quantiles and has substantially less effect on households purchasing at light and moderate levels. A $2 MUP may reduce the proportions of male and female shoppers purchasing at the public health threshold of more than two standard drinks per household member per day by -3.03 [90% CI: -4.83, -1.

Home cooking is a key element of family meals. While many worries have been expressed about the decline in family meals and cooking, empirical assessments and explanations to this decline are lacking. This paper examines whether the fall in cooking times at the household level is due to changes in behaviours or changes in the population composition. It relies on data from the Time use surveys in 1985 and 2010 in two countries with contrasting food cultures, France and the US. In each country, we use Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition, a technique that allows decomposing a difference into what is attributable to changes in regression coefficients and what is due to changes in the distribution of the explanatory variables. We review a range of explanatory hypotheses to the decline in cooking times and confront them to our empirical results. Our conclusions are that the main vehicles for changes in food preparation times are changes in the population composition, specifically the rise in female employment and single-adult households, which are partly countered by the population aging. Changes in behaviours form a fragmented and inconclusive picture but changes in working women’s behaviours do not seem to contribute to the decline in cooking.

The public-health community views mandatory Front-of-Pack (FOP) nutrition labels and nutritional taxes as promising tools to control the growth of food-related chronic diseases. This paper uses household scanner data to propose an ex-ante evaluation and comparison of these two policy options for the fromage blanc and dessert yogurt market. In most markets, labelling is voluntary and firms display fat labels only on the FOP of low-fat products to target consumers who do not want to eat fat. We here separately identify consumer preferences for fat and for FOP fat labels by exploiting an exogenous difference in legal labelling requirements between these two product categories. Estimates of demand curves are combined with a supply model of oligopolistic price competition to simulate policies. We find that a feasible ad valorem fat tax dominates a mandatory FOP-label policy from an economic perspective, but both are equally effective in reducing average fat purchases.

This dissertation investigates the supply and demand factors associated with the use of breast cancer screening. Among the supply factors, I examine how the coexistence of organized screening alongside individual screening influences the content of the screening examination as well as the regular use of screening. In addition to demand factors such as socioeconomic characteristics, particular attention is paid to the possibility of explaining regular screening uptake by risk and time preferences as well as perceptions. Based on psychological regularities identified in behavioral economics and psychology, three nudge-type interventions are tested in a randomized field experiment aimed at increasing screening rates in the national program.

Health behaviours often imply intertemporal trade-offs. In this context, individuals may feel more or less concerned by the health of their future selves. “Psychological connectedness” is the extent to which we feel connected with our future selves, in terms of similarity of character and life projects. We here propose to decompose time preference into three components: impulsivity. planning.

This thesis proposes to analyze the effects of ruptures in occupational trajectories on the health status of individuals in Europe. We consider two breaks in the career path: one at the beginning of the career -- entry into the labor market in a deteriorated economy -- and the other at the end of the career -- the transition to retirement. Between these two critical periods, we are specifically interested in the impact on health of a break, this time anticipated: the fear of losing one's job. Our empirical analyses combine data from European and British surveys. In order to overcome the endogeneity problems inherent in any empirical analysis of the link between health and career trajectory, we apply exogenous shocks to the careers of individuals. We thus use a natural experiment (the 1973 oil crisis) and the institutional characteristics as defined in the legislation of each European country (legal retirement ages, degrees of employment protection, compulsory schooling rules). Our project aims to identify a causal link between the professional activity of individuals and their obesity category through the use of specific econometric techniques taking into account endogeneity and the use of data from the GAZEL cohort (which has been following 20,000 volunteers employed at EDF-GDF since 1989).

This thesis is based on the assumption that, in order to influence drug use, it is necessary to analyze in detail the determinants of the entry into drug use during adolescence. The tools provided by economic science can shed new light on these determinants. After presenting an overview of public policies to combat tobacco and alcohol in France, we focus on four main themes. First, we look at the monetary resources available to adolescents and show that the amount and origin of these resources are key factors in adolescent drug use. We then study the complementary or substitution relationships that link tobacco and alcohol use. We show that a policy of taxing spirits reduces the consumption of spirits and tobacco by European adolescents, but that the results differ according to the group of European countries. Next, we examine the influence of peer group. We highlight that the likelihood that an adolescent will use drugs increases with the number of peers perceived to be drug users and decreases with peer group size, desire for higher social status, and quality of peer relationships. We conclude with a theoretical analysis highlighting that, beyond traditional policies based on increasing the costs of drugs, considering the benefits of drug use offers new avenues of reflection for primary prevention public policies.

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This talk discusses Daniel Herrera's article on the impact of folic acid advisories targeting pregnant women on their consumption behaviour (in France). It emphasises issues of internal validity regarding the use of a difference-in-difference strategy, whereby pregnant women are compared to non-pregnant women.

This study investigates the extent to which labour market changes explain the decline in time spent in home-cooking by married women in France, between 1986 and 2010. Using time use data and Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions, we find that rising women’s employment and observed wages account together for about 60% of the decline in married women’s time spent in cooking. We then use a semiparametric matching technique.

This study compares the impact of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) tax between moderate and high consumers in Australia. The key methodological contribution is that price response heterogeneity is identified while controlling for censoring of consumption at zero and endogeneity of expenditure by using a finite mixture instrumental variable Tobit model. The SSB price elasticity estimates show a decreasing trend across increasing consumption quantiles, from −2.3 at the median to −0.2 at the 95th quantile. Although high consumers of SSBs have a less elastic demand for SSBs, their very high consumption levels imply that a tax would achieve higher reduction in consumption and higher health gains. Our results also suggest that an SSB tax would represent a small fiscal burden for consumers whatever their pre-policy level of consumption, and that an excise tax should be preferred to an ad valorem tax.

This talk discusses Santos et al.'s article on the responsiveness of patients' choice of doctor to variations in doctors/practices quality. It emphasises various measurement issues regarding what is defined as the "quality of a doctor", as well as identification problems with the use of mixed multinomial logit models for modelling health care demand (endogeneity of quality indicators, endogeneity of doctors' choice of location).

Can social interactions be used to favor the consumption of fair-trade products? Social interactions can alter purchase behaviors by triggering either self-image concerns (when one observes others' decisions without being observed) or social-image concerns (when everybody observes everyone). A laboratory experiment is designed to identify separately the role of these motivators, using real auctions for a standard and a fair-trade chocolate, and controlling carefully for taste and package differences. The willingness-to-pay (WTP) for the chocolates and the premium that the subjects grant to the fair-trade variety are analyzed. The results reveal that both social and self-image matter: the subjects give a higher premium to the fairtrade chocolate when their decisions are made public. the premium is adjusted according to the information that is received about the premium granted by other subjects, even when decisions remain private. However, the higher premium in public auctions is obtained through a decrease in the WTP for the standard chocolate, rather than an increase in the WTP for the fair-trade chocolate. In addition, the subjects are much more sensitive to information about others' choices that relax the moral or social norm constraining their own choices. We thus conclude that social interactions cannot be used to nudge consumers into fair-trade consumption, at least for ordinary products such as chocolate.

This paper contributes to the debate over the effectiveness of education policies in reducing overall health inequalities as compared to public health actions directed at the less-educated. Recentered Influence Function (RIF) regressions are used to decompose the contribution of education to the changing distribution of Body Mass Index (BMI) in France, between 1981 and 2003, into a composition effect (the shift in population education due to a massive educational expansion), and a structure effect (a changing educational gradient in BMI). Educational expansion has reduced overall BMI inequality by 3.4% for women and 2.3% for men. However, the structure effect on its own has produced a 10.9% increase in overall inequality for women, due to a steeper education gradient starting from the second quartile of the distribution. This structure effect on overall inequality is also large (7.6%) for men, albeit insignificant as it remains concentrated in the last decile. Educational expansion policies can thus reduce overall BMI inequalities. but attention must still be paid to the BMI gradient in education even for policies addressing overall rather than socioeconomic health inequalities.

The public-health community views the mandatory labelling and taxation of fat as promising tools to control the growth of food-related chronic disease. This paper is the first to propose an ex ante evaluation of these two policy options in an oligopolistic setting with differentiated products and heterogeneous demand. Using household scanner data on fromages blancs and dessert yogurts, we separately identify consumer preferences for fat and front-of-pack fat labels by exploiting an exogenous difference in legal labelling requirements between these two product categories. Demand estimates are then combined with a supply model to evaluate both policies. In the absence of any producer price response, making fat labels mandatory reduces the fat supplied to regular consumers in this market by 38%. an ad-valorem tax of 10% (5%) on the producer price of full-fat (half-skimmed) products has a similar impact. Allowing producer price reactions, however, yields much smaller effects: a 9% drop for the fat tax, and a fall of only 1:5% for mandatory labels. Producers thus neutralise up to 96% of the impact of mandatory labelling on demand, via large price cuts on products with large ex ante margins. This illustrates how market forces are largely able to defeat the intended effect of market-based public-health interventions.

The promotion of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is likely to depend on consumers’ purchase behaviors. While many consumers like the idea of social responsibility, the responsible consumption remains at a low level. This survey analyses two main barriers to responsible consumption: the willingness-to-pay for it, which relates to consumer social preferences. and the information asymmetry between companies and consumers. The economic literature shows that consumer social preferences are related to altruistic, self-image and social image concerns. Only consumers with strong social preferences and a low marginal utility of income (a high income) are likely to purchase CSR products. Moreover, purchase decisions crucially depend on the existence of labels, which truthfully identify the CSR products. Public policies may promote consumer social responsibility through education programs, enhancement of self- and social-image concerns, and careful label regulation.

In many cases individuals benefit differently from the provision of a public good. We study in a laboratory experiment how heterogeneity in returns and uncertainty about the own return affects unconditional and conditional contribution behavior in a linear public goods game. The elicitation of conditional contributions in combination with a within subject design allows us to investigate belief-independent and type-specific reactions to heterogeneity. We find that, on average, heterogeneity in returns decreases unconditional contributions but affects contributions only weakly. Uncertainty in addition to heterogeneity reduces conditional contributions slightly. Individual reactions to heterogeneity differ systematically. Selfish subjects and one third of conditional cooperators do not react to heterogeneity whereas the reactions of the remaining conditional cooperators vary. A substantial part of heterogeneity in reactions can be explained by inequity aversion with respect to different reference groups.

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Obesity is not only a public health issue. Its development questions our food model and, beyond, our food production model. Industrialists are not mistaken, hiding their defense of this production model under the guise of gastronomy and gustatory pleasure. In fact, it is consumers' trade-offs between health and pleasure that ultimately determine the success or failure of food and nutritional health policies. But do they make these choices in a sovereign and fully responsible manner? To this question, which is central to the construction of a coherent food policy, Fabrice Étilé answers in the negative. It is the environment and the food supply that must be changed, and behaviors will follow. With this in mind, he proposes a series of courses of action combining labeling, taxation, regulation of the food environment and reform of the agri-food sector.

The promotion of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is likely to depend on consumers' purchase behaviors. While many consumers like the idea of social responsibility, the responsible consumption remains at a low level. This survey analyses two main barriers to responsible consumption: the willingness-to-pay for it, which relates to consumer social preferences. and the information asymmetry between companies and consumers. The economic literature shows that consumer social preferences are related to altruistic, self-image and social image concerns. Only consumers with strong social preferences and a low marginal utility of income (a high income) are likely to purchase CSR products. Moreover, purchase decisions crucially depend on the existence of labels, which truthfully identify the CSR products. Public policies may promote consumer social responsibility through education programs, enhancement of self- and social-image concerns, and careful label regulation.

This dissertation for the Habilitation to Supervise Research examines the relationship between the economic analysis of 'risky' consumption and the public policies aimed at regulating it. More specifically, the aim is to understand the difficulties of the economics of risky behaviors to impose itself in the process of elaboration of public policies. To do this, we must identify the positive and normative contributions of economic analysis to the understanding of these behaviors and to the justification and construction of policies aimed at regulating them. It is also necessary to confront these contributions with what these policies really are: a project of risk management and normalization of behavior through health education. This confrontation is essentially based on my own work, which I use from both a critical and programmatic perspective. I present the main features of Grossman's model of health capital, emphasizing its modernity. On the one hand, it gives form to behavioral mechanisms well identified by the sociology of health through the concepts of health capital and production technology (Section II-1). On the other hand, it proposes a normative approach to health behaviour, which is apparently in line with the evolution of ways of thinking about and constructing public health policies: emphasis on individual responsibility and action on behaviour, consideration of the natural springs of individual behaviour, and the use of information and prices as regulatory tools, with due respect for individual freedom (Section II-2). This suggests, to use a Foucauldian reading grid, that the health demand model could be the basis for a quasi-pure form of neo-liberal governmentality of individual health behaviours in the positive and normative order. However, in reality, public health policies are hardly inspired by this model. I recall that information policies aim at changing both the perceptions of risks and the preferences of individuals, thus contravening Becker's "De Gustibus Non Est Disputandum". I show that the dissemination of information on the generic risks of consumption has little effect on individual risk perceptions, thus underlining a limitation of the economic approach from the point of view of public health promoters committed to the effectiveness of prevention measures (Section III-1). This is why targeted health information and education actions, relying on intermediaries, seem a priori to be more effective, and are implemented by Public Health. But their effect is very heterogeneous. It depends in particular on the proximity of the source of information, as well as on the psycho-social characteristics and the consumption career of the beneficiaries of the action (Section III-1). These results show that the economic analysis of information policies is, from a positive point of view, off-topic, in that it ignores the real aim of the institutions and actors of these policies: a setting of norms for individual behaviour (Section III -4). I show how this complicates any ex post evaluation of public information campaigns (Section III - 2). Policies that tax risky behaviors are probably more effective than information policies, even if they are regressive and weigh more heavily on the working classes (Sections IV-1 and IV-2). An analysis of the discourse of public health promoters also reveals that the price tool is used to enforce behavioural norms, rather than to internalise the externalities they produce. Thus, policies for regulating risky behaviour are not inspired by the neo-liberal forms of governmentality identified by Foucault at the end of the 1970s, forms embodied in particular in the health demand model (and more generally by the neo-classical approach). Why, then, remain attached to this model? How can it be reformed? To answer these questions, it seems to me that we must return to the analysis of the two types of factors that constrain action: (1) constraints, which means going beyond the budget constraint and integrating physiological and perceptual constraints in particular. (2) the agents' representations. On this last point, and perhaps surprisingly, the neo-classical approach appears to be particularly useful for the analysis of social inequalities in health, in relation to social differences in representations. The prevalence of labelled risk behaviours is higher in the working classes, and pricing and information policies seem to increase these inequalities. I examine two explanations: social differences in the opportunity costs of risky behaviors (Section V) . the rejection of behavioral norms promoted by public health in the name of norms of taste based on social interactions (Section VI). My work leads me to relativize the argument of the autonomy and resistance of social norms of consumption, and to validate the hypothesis of differences in opportunity costs. The poorest take more risks because they have less to lose, and their apparent lack of temperance is the product of a more consequentialist rationality than it appears at first sight. Their representations of the future differ from those of the wealthy classes, not so much out of myopia as out of realism about their life chances. However, this small success of the theory in the positive order should not obscure the magnitude of the scientific challenges facing the economics of risk behaviour (Sections VII and VIII). First, representations are not just about opportunity costs. They also include the way in which individuals think about the process of producing their own health: the role of individual responsibility, belief in the effectiveness of market or medical devices, etc. Second, the models must incorporate the physiological and perceptual constraints that affect the range and value of choice options available to consumers. I therefore conclude that there is a need to model and analyze in more detail the effect of biological constraints, market devices, and body-governing techniques on consumption choices. Finally, economic analysis is confronted with a major normative challenge: how to think about public action when public health policies aim at normalizing behaviors, in a competitive relationship with the market? I discuss the propositions of behavioral economics and suggest that, from a normative point of view, it is necessary to reject both the dogma of consumer sovereignty and the capture of public policy by a bureaucratic and technological 'enlightened' elite. This implies a radical rethinking of the democratic process of public policy making.

On food issues, public health promoters and defenders of taste enjoyment ritually confront each other. This kind of staging overlooks the way in which consumers usually reconcile pleasure and health. By taking a close look at this arbitration, we want to put consumers back at the center of the public debate, as objects but also as actors of public policies on food and health. We have reached the end of a nutritional and dietary transition marked by a continuous increase in our intake of calories, fats and sugars, a growing demand for processed and cooked products, an increased recourse to out-of-home catering, and a weakening of the French food model among the younger generations. The entry into the era of food abundance is paid for by an explosion of overweight and obesity, with social inequalities that reveal the major determinants of the trade-off between pleasure and health. Technological progress in the agro-industry has favored the marketing of inexpensive products, rich in added fats, sugars and salt, providing easy satisfaction. Why give up these promises of "low cost" pleasure when we have a blocked life horizon and unhappy living conditions? The efforts we make to invest in our health and in our bodies, as the nutritional recommendation campaigns invite us to do, depend primarily on what we can hope to gain from them. However, the State must not abandon all regulatory ambitions in the area of food and health, on the pretext that the consumer is sovereign and that supply is content to satisfy demand. Because our trade-offs between pleasure and health are often imperfect and erroneous. Food marketing leads us to eat more than we would like. The consumption of fatty and sweet products distorts our taste and conditions our future choices, like an addiction. Our food environment ultimately tips the balance of pleasure far beyond what would be sufficient to satisfy our interests. A policy to regulate the food environment could be based on four pillars: 1) a nutritional label using the traffic light system (green-orange-red), depending on the nutritional profile of the food, affixed to the front of prepackaged products. 2) a reallocation of foodstuffs to different VAT rates according to their nutritional profiles, with a prominent VAT display. 3) a strict regulation of the commercial devices pushing to the increase of the consumed quantities (promotions, advertisements for children, etc.), and a regulation of the architecture of the choices in the places of purchase and restoration. 4) an agro-industrial policy favoring the production of foods with less added fat, sugar and salt. This package of measures is justified by the violations of consumer sovereignty observed in food markets. Such premises are debatable. The right of the state to regulate the environment in this way to influence our choices can also be questioned. The different policy options at stake ultimately involve values of freedom and public health protection, but also equity and economic efficiency. In order to decide, it is urgent to organize a debate in France on the future we want for our food. Since it is a question of their choices between pleasure and health, it is imperative that consumers be placed at the center of the deliberation process and the creation of public policies, so that a form of collective sovereignty over our food choices can be restored, if not individual sovereignty.

Obesity is not only a public health issue. Its development questions our food model and, beyond, our food production model. Industrialists are not mistaken, hiding their defense of this production model under the guise of gastronomy and gustatory pleasure. In fact, it is consumers' trade-offs between health and pleasure that ultimately determine the success or failure of food and nutritional health policies. But do they make these choices in a sovereign and fully responsible manner? To this question, which is central to the construction of a coherent food policy, Fabrice Étilé answers in the negative. It is the environment and the food supply that must be changed, and behaviors will follow. With this in mind, he proposes a series of courses of action combining labeling, taxation, regulation of the food environment and reform of the agri-food sector.

Interview with Fabrice Etilé, author of the book "Obesity: public health and food populism" published by Editions Rue d'Ulm, 2013, 124 pages.

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Are the economic sciences capable of explaining the diversity of drug use, which varies over time, according to the individual and the product? The theory of rational addiction (Becker and Murphy, 1988) is based on a hypothesis of habit formation which does not allow us to grasp the specificity of psychotropic drugs compared to more ordinary goods such as games. Drug use is particularly harmful when it reduces the ability to project into the future or when it destroys, directly or indirectly, the taste for certain activities. The hypothesis of variability of time preference allows us not only to account for the first stylized fact, but also to establish conceptual equivalences with the sociology of drug addiction. Furthermore, we develop a model of the drug as a totalitarian good, in which the user learns to love only the drug to the detriment of any other activity. This model predicts most of the phenomena characteristic of heavy addictions, in particular the existence of adjustment costs, socio-economic marginalization and cycles of consumption. We conclude with an economic definition of addiction. We then propose an analysis of the consumption of tobacco, alcohol and cannabis by French adolescents, by applying the techniques of duration and "double-hurdle" models to the Inserm survey (1993). Then we study the effects of health information on cigarette consumption. For this, we build a model that treats cigarettes as an addictive and totalitarian good, since they are addictive and constitute a risk, to be determined from various information, for the health capital.