GODARD Olivier

Scientific research is confronted with ethical questions in its very activity (fraud, possible conflicts of interest between scientific activity and commercial partners, etc.). It also encounters ethical questions when it is applied to human beings and is then likely to have consequences on their freedom or their security. It is not only biomedical research that is concerned here, but any research activity whose consequences are likely to affect either individuals or populations, which is the case in psychology and sociology and in any research involving the use of personal data.

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It is now half a century since the environment emerged as a scientific, political and societal issue. Faced with the current challenges, it is important to understand what has happened during these decisive decades, to look back on the progress or failures - on what has or has not "worked". This is what this book aims to do, and it also aims to draw some perspectives for the future. The aim is not to draw up an ecological balance sheet of the last five decades, nor to recall the events that marked them, but rather to approach these years from the inside, through the particular prism of the relations between science, politics and society - at the interface between the movement of ideas, the advancement of knowledge and public action. Few witnesses to this half-century are as valuable as Jacques Theys. Since the 1970s, he has occupied a privileged position as a "border-crosser" between science and politics, dividing his time between university teaching, responsibilities in the administration or in foresight, and involvement in civil society. Even if it is not limited to this, the book conceived in his honor can also be read as a synthesis of the often avant-garde reflections that were his. Through the multiplicity of analyses gathered here, it is an unparalleled look at the evolution of environmental policies, their relationship to science, information or democracy, the place of foresight as an "intelligence of time", or the future of sustainable development that is proposed.

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Climate change poses immense problems of intergenerational, intragenerational and international justice. This critical survey describes the intellectual landscape of global climate justice, and clarifies the challenges, positions, arguments and theoretical background of this concept. To do so, we review how equity is mobilised in the climate change economics literature and confront arguments about justice used within or at the periphery of climate negotiations with those of moral and political philosophers. We present the stances of States, NGOs and experts. We discuss the principles of justice underpinning the fair sharing of a carbon budget and their moral justifications. We examine the concepts of climate damage and of responsibility and highlight the hurdles to make way for historical emissions in climate * This survey owes a lot to the research of Olivier Godard on the topic of climate Pottier et al. justice. We conclude on some implications of the Paris Agreement for climate justice and the way forward.

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This book analyzes the way in which national strategies to combat the greenhouse effect can be determined according to the cognitive and ethical stances of national states with regard to global climate scenarios. It distinguishes between cognitive approaches of the "predictive", "Thomistic" or "symmetrical" type, crossed with ethical stances designated as "egocentric", "altruistic-dynastic", "intragenerational solidarist", "cosmopolitical altruistic" and "Kanto-millian universalist". To evaluate these configurations, it is assumed that the choices made by a state are based on an assessment of the climate damage associated with different greenhouse gas concentration scenarios. The central indicators used are the present value of the damage caused by the emission of a ton of CO2 and the level of the discount rate. Within this classical framework, where the concept of damage is tested in order to apprehend long-term phenomena, the evaluation determines which cognitive-ethical configurations justify the "Factor 4" target in 2050: there are a reduced number of them, either of a "cosmopolitical altruism (international and intergenerational)" or of a "Kanto-millennial universalism", if this target is chosen according to the climate problem alone. Assuming that a value of 100 € / tCO2 in 2030 is an obligatory point of passage towards "Factor 4" in 2050, such ethical choices imply the recognition of a high 2010 present value for the damage caused by the emission of a ton of CO2e (at least 53 € / tCO2, i.e. an order of magnitude higher than the 2013 price of carbon on the ETS market) and the adoption of a characteristic discount rate which, depending on the configurations studied, cannot be higher than 3.25%. Such values should be considered as logical conditions to be respected for all derived choices and in particular when determining the best intertemporal emission reduction path. Another result: taking into account the impact of the date of emission on climate damage, it turns out that "cosmopolitical altruism" and "Kanto-millennial universalism" lead to strictly opposite recommendations regarding the profile of the best temporal trajectory of "consumption" of an emission budget fixed for the period 2011-2050: the first one calls for concentrating emissions at the beginning of the period, and the second one calls for starting with a "reduction shock". In total, none of the configurations justifying the "Factor 4" target agree with the simple application of a Hotelling rule that would increase the value of the ton of CO2 at the standard discount rate for public investment.

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Why are greenhouse gas emissions not controlled? The thesis interrogates the toolbox of neo-classical economic analysis and asks the question: how does economic theory form an inadequate mental framing of the climate problem? The thesis identifies shifts in the history of resource economics and shows a recurrent neglect of the material substrate of production. The production function, the preferred tool for modeling technical constraints, is based on a misunderstanding, as the Cambridge controversy taught. Cost-benefit analysis, the only supposedly non-normative approach, is preferred to deal with climate change, even if it means modeling unknown relationships. The damage function extrapolates from shared prejudices, and the repeated controversies over discounting highlight the inconsistency of the current macroeconomic framework. The analysis of a contemporary article makes explicit the functioning of this casual relationship to reality: the loose links between the mathematical structure of a model, the words used to describe it and its numerical results give extraordinary margins for interpretation. The relationship between economic system, ideology and academic discipline is studied through the prism of two symbols, homo economicus and the market. The inadequacy of economic theory to deal with climate change has a deeper root in the current market-centered organization of Western societies. The blocking effects can be seen both in the sociological phenomenon of climate skepticism and in the construction of the carbon market.

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This thesis started from an initial questioning of the compatibility of economic models of pollution optimization with the requirements of sustainable development. It focuses on dynamic models of pollution regulation and natural capital management. In the light of a sustainability criterion requiring a sufficient preservation of the pollution assimilation capacity of the environment, we analyze in a first part the optimal pollution trajectories in a framework of intertemporal maximization of the discounted utility. The standard dynamic theoretical models of flow (Ch. 1) and stock (Ch. 2) pollution control without capital accumulation are modified to allow an explicit valuation of this assimilation capacity. They are illustrated respectively by the role of riparian zones in the absorption of leached nitrates and by the assimilative capacity of CO_2 by the biosphere. This review shows that compatibility between sustainability requirements is not ensured in all cases, which leads us to seek different forms of modeling, more in line with the objectives of sustainable development. In a second part, we bring together the bases of an approach to pollution regulation with those of the management of a renewable natural resource. This perspective leads us to explore the alternatives to the criterion of maximizing discounted utility represented by criteria such as the Green Golden Rule, the Maxim (Ch. 3) or Sustainability (Ch. 4). From the intuitions gathered in the first two parts, we propose in the last part (Ch. 5) a simplified model of growth with physical and natural capital. This model, characterized by the endogenous depreciation of natural capital, allows us to extend our thinking on sustainability to economic capacities in terms of preservation of environmental capacities.

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Our research aims to highlight how regulatory regimes based on new financial arrangements generate performance that sometimes deviates significantly from objectives formulated in physical terms. To do so, we rely on an empirical investigation of household waste management regimes in three European countries: France, Denmark and Greece. The core of the approach is a joint modeling of the physical and financial flows set in motion by a given regime, given its constitutive rules. The simulations carried out allow us to draw lessons on the incentives to be introduced to achieve the objectives. They also illustrate the role of modeling and shed light on the strengths and/or weaknesses of each scheme. The main methodological lesson learned from the thesis is that it is necessary to pay attention to the incentives incorporated in a new regulatory regime, beyond the financial dimension.

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The thesis originates in the paradox of the low use of economic instruments, even though they are theoretically, and to a lesser extent empirically, deemed to be efficient, the market has imposed itself as the central referent of modern economies, and economic efficiency is now an unavoidable criterion of justification. Two responses are discussed: either the theoretical analysis does not allow for an account of the economic efficiency of a policy instrument, or public environmental policies are not primarily oriented by the search for economic efficiency. The analysis is situated in a framework of limited rationality and intertemporal coherence of public policies. The objective is to identify the place of economic efficiency in the processes of adoption, elaboration and evolution of a public environmental policy from an analytical and not a normative angle. The institutional analysis of American and French pollution control policies, which are respectively representative of the use of a system of tradable permits or a regulatory instrument, shows that the characterization of an instrument only makes it possible to identify original forms of organization, but not the nature of a true coordination. An institutional trajectory is the reinterpretation of policy instruments based on five fundamental elements: the basis of the legitimacy of actors . the regulator's hypothesis on the nature of information . the basis of decision-making . the nature of collective action . the rationality of collective action. A mode of coordination evolves when an event modifies one of the elements and disorganizes the balance of satisfaction of the actors. Economic efficiency becomes an issue for negotiation. An instrument is chosen according to its capacity to resolve a dysfunction without causing a major disruption in coordination.

The general framework of this thesis is the study of the problems of collective choice for the conservation of living marine resources. The question is raised about the necessary adaptations of the classical economic interpretations and analyses, due to the recent evolution of the definition of these problems. The thesis is based on the comparative analysis of an international case - the exploitation of large cetaceans, and a local case - the exploitation of coral reefs, approached in an evolutionary way to illustrate the studied evolutions. It is developed in three parts. The first part presents the way in which the natural resource economy approaches collective choices for the protection of life. The analysis shows the central role played by the notion of authority, and brings to light an essential question: that of the nature and origin of the control that can be exercised by agents over elements of the marine ecosystem. After reviewing the standard approach to the problems of fisheries control, the second part studies the consequences for this approach of the recent evolutions in the definition of conservation problems towards a greater consideration of the natural and human context in which fisheries operate, both at the national and international levels. It shows that while the tools of classical bioeconomics allow us to partially understand these changes, they do not allow us to grasp the nature of the process leading to the elaboration of mechanisms for controlling access to marine ecosystems. The third part explores this procedural dimension of collective decision problems. Based on the tools developed for the study of sequential choice problems in other fields, the analysis shows the interest of a dynamic approach of the decision, conceived as a sequence of choices building, in time, the evolution trajectories of the exploited systems. An analysis of the collective dimension of conservation decisions is also developed, based on a comparative study of the emergence of control mechanisms in the local and international situations considered.

The construction of a Community policy for the management of packaging waste must take into account the existence of uncertainties that are currently irreducible. These uncertainties prevent a precise vision of the advantages and disadvantages of possible solutions. An efficient management system cannot therefore be established on the basis of a determination of an optimal organizational and technical solution. The question becomes more relevant through a search for efficiency through coordination. It is the mechanisms that allow actors to coordinate over time that are important. The process that leads to the construction of rules, explicit or implicit, is crucial. We show that efficiency, in order to be reconciled with the viability of a management system over time, requires a coordination framework that is stable. A stable system has the characteristic of evolving over time without the introduction of new elements disturbing the actors' frame of reference. The latter can continue to behave with a better understanding of what their action will imply, especially for the actors with whom they seek to coordinate and who will interpret their action. Failing to reduce radical uncertainties, each actor acts in a situation of lesser uncertainty about the actions that conform to the coordination framework and pursues efficiency within this framework. We develop an explanatory model of the conditions that allow a regulator to develop a system of rules with stability. This model helps us to show, through the example of the European packaging directive, the limits of the regulatory process within the EU. The maintenance of a logic close to international negotiations limits the possibilities for a regulator to establish a system of rules consistent with the objectives posted. A first track is launched on the need to reform the European regulatory process. The second is the introduction of founding principles for a European "regime" that would allow actors, while respecting national institutional trajectories, an important condition for the stability of a system, to approach the question of organizational and technical choices from stable reference points.

Environmental problems put economic development methods to the test. The examination of public policies reveals the prevalence of other representations at work than the classical scheme of resource misallocation. Based on work on self-organization, we show that the concept of environment has the structure of an "entangled hierarchy" between the meaning constructed by the socio-economic system and that which emanates from the environment as an encompassing entity. Self-reference and heteroreference are intertwined in the representation of problems, in particular in the configurations of "controversial universes", distinguished from the "stabilized universes" to which the neo-classical analytical apparatus is more adapted. A typology of internalization mechanisms highlights their diversity and introduces the figure of "contestable legitimacy". Based on cases of regional or global pollution, such as the climatic risk linked to the greenhouse effect, the first elements of a theory of the environment in a "controversial universe" are put forward. The intervention of a conflicting plurality of systems of justification of action renews the approach to the choice of policy instruments. Taking into account this legitimacy constraint, a comparison is made between taxation and tradable permit regimes to coordinate action to prevent climate risk at the international level.